Spatiotemporal dynamics and environmental risk factors in the spread of COVID-19 within urban slum settlements

Nova Amalia Sakina

doi:10.61511/wass.v2i2.2025.1085

Authors

Nova Amalia Sakina Department of Environmental Science, Graduate School of Sustainable Development, Universitas Indonesia, Central Jakarta, 10430, Indonesia

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.61511/wass.v2i2.2025.1085

Keywords:

COVID-19, Jakarta special capital region, slums area

Abstract

Background: This study examines the spatial-temporal dynamics and environmental risk factors that influence COVID-19 transmission in urban slums. Although the pandemic has had widespread social, economic, and environmental impacts throughout Indonesia, its effects have been particularly severe in slum communities, where residents face structural vulnerabilities such as high population density, poor sanitation, and limited access to health services. Methods: This study is based on a comprehensive review of accredited international and national journal publications. By synthesizing multidisciplinary evidence, the study identifies key factors driving infection patterns in urban slums, particularly those related to environmental conditions, population density, mobility, and socioeconomic inequality. The analysis also highlights the role of geospatial approaches in mapping transmission clusters and tracking temporal shifts in COVID-19 spread. Findings: The review shows that the geospatial and temporal patterns of COVID-19 transmission in slums are strongly influenced by environmental risks—such as inadequate housing ventilation, poor waste management, and limited access to clean water—combined with highly dense living conditions. These factors collectively increase the rate of transmission and create persistent disease hotspots. These findings also emphasize that targeted interventions, spatially informed policies, and community-centered strategies are essential for effectively reducing infection risk and strengthening local resilience. Conclusion: Future research should explore the application of geospatial methodologies to assess the complex interactions between environmental vulnerability and disease transmission in slum settings. These insights are essential for designing context-sensitive interventions to promote community health resilience and inclusive urban development. Strengthening spatial evidence and integrating it into policy frameworks can help protect vulnerable populations and build healthier, more equitable urban environments. Novelty/Originality of this article: This study offers a novel contribution by synthesizing spatiotemporal perspectives with environmental risk analysis to specifically examine COVID-19 transmission within urban slum settlements—an area that remains underexplored in existing Indonesian research.

References

Ahmed, W., Angel, N., Edson, J., Bibby, K., Bivins, A., O’Brien, J. W., Choi, P. M., Kitajima, M., Simpson, S. L., Li, J., Tscharke, B., Verhagen, R., Smith, W. J. M., Zaugg, J., Dierens, L., Hugenholtz, P., Thomas, K. V., & Mueller, J. F. (2020). First confirmed detection of SARS-CoV-2 in untreated wastewater in Australia: A proof of concept for the wastewater surveillance of COVID-19 in the community. Science of the Total Environment, 728, 138764. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138764

Akhmad, Romadhoni, B., Karim, K., Tajibu, M. J., & Syukur, M. (2019). The impact of fuel oil price fluctuations on indonesia’s macro economic condition. International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy, 9(2), 277–282. https://doi.org/10.32479/ijeep.7470

Al-Rohaimi, A. H., & Al Otaibi, F. (2020). Novel SARS-CoV-2 outbreak and COVID19 disease; a systemic review on the global pandemic. Genes and Diseases, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gendis.2020.06.004

Aldaco, R., Hoehn, D., Laso, J., Margallo, M., Ruiz-Salmón, J., Cristobal, J., Kahhat, R., Villanueva-Rey, P., Bala, A., Batlle-Bayer, L., Fullana-i-Palmer, P., Irabien, A., & Vazquez-Rowe, I. (2020). Food waste management during the COVID-19 outbreak: a holistic climate, economic and nutritional approach. Science of the Total Environment, 742, 140524. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140524

Almuttaqi, A. I. (2020). Kekacauan Respons terhadap COVID-19 di Indonesia. The Habibie Center Insights, 1(13), 1–7. http://habibiecenter.or.id/img/publication/66f28c42de71fefe1c6fcdee37a5c1a6.pdf

Amoah, I. D., Kumari, S., & Bux, F. (2020). Coronaviruses in wastewater processes: Source, fate and potential risks. Environment International, 143(May). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2020.105962

Arora, P., Kumar, H., & Panigrahi, B. K. (2020). Prediction and analysis of COVID-19 positive cases using deep learning models: A descriptive case study of India. Chaos, Solitons and Fractals, 139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chaos.2020.110017

Asian Development Bank. (2020). The Economic Impact of the COVID-19 Outbreak on Developing Asia. ADB BRIEFS, 9(128). https://doi.org/10.22617/BRF200096

Badan Informasi Geospasial. (2020). COVID-19 Indonesia Cases. Badan Informasi Geospasial.

Bashir, M. F., Ma, B., & Shahzad, L. (2020). A brief review of socio-economic and environmental impact of COVID-19. Air Quality, Atmosphere and Health. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11869-020-00894-8

Basir, M. (2012). Hubungan Sosial dan Akses Sosial Masyarakat pada Linkgungan Pemukiman kumuh di Kota Makasar. Jurnal Perkotaan, 4(1), 50–58. http://ojs.atmajaya.ac.id/index.php/lppm/article/view/83

BPS DKI Jakarta. (2019). Persentase Penduduk Miskin Di Provinsi Dki Jakarta Menurun. BPS DKI Jakarta.

Brito, P. L., Kuffer, M., Koeva, M., Pedrassoli, J. C., Wang, J., Costa, F., & de Freitas, A. D. (2020). The spatial dimension of COVID-19: The potential of earth observation data in support of slum communities with evidence from Brazil. ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information, 9(9), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi9090557

Bukuluki, P., Mwenyango, H., Katongole, S. P., Sidhva, D., & Palattiyil, G. (2020). The socio-economic and psychosocial impact of COVID-19 pandemic on urban refugees in Uganda. Social Sciences & Humanities Open, 2(1), 100045. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2020.100045

Caesandra, V., Wiranegara, H. W., & Sugihartoyo, S. (2020). Tingkat Keberlanjutan Pemanfaatan Ruang Publik Multifungsi di Permukiman Kumuh. Tataloka, 22(3), 354–365. https://doi.org/10.14710/tataloka.22.3.354-365

Cities Alliance. (2013). DKI Jakarta: Informal Settlement Mapping. Cities Alliance.

CNN Indonesia. (2020). Corona yang Kehilangan Seram di Permukiman Kumuh Jakarta. CNN Indonesia.

Corburn, J., Vlahov, D., Mberu, B., Riley, L., Caiaffa, W. T., Rashid, S. F., Ko, A., Patel, S., Jukur, S., Martínez-Herrera, E., Jayasinghe, S., Agarwal, S., Nguendo-Yongsi, B., Weru, J., Ouma, S., Edmundo, K., Oni, T., & Ayad, H. (2020). Slum Health: Arresting COVID-19 and Improving Well-Being in Urban Informal Settlements. Journal of Urban Health, 97(3), 348–357. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-020-00438-6

Darmawan, E., & Atmojo, M. E. (2020). Kebijakan Work from Home bagi Aparatur Sipil Negara di Masa Pandemi COVID-19. TheJournalish: Social and Government, 1(September), 92–99. http://thejournalish.com/ojs/index.php/thejournalish/article/view/26/15

De Ridder, D., Sandoval, J., Vuilleumier, N., Stringhini, S., Spechbach, H., Joost, S., Kaiser, L., & Guessous, I. (2020). Geospatial digital monitoring of COVID-19 cases at high spatiotemporal resolution. The Lancet Digital Health, 2(8), e393–e394. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2589-7500(20)30139-4

Djalante, R., Lassa, J., Setiamarga, D., Sudjatma, A., Indrawan, M., Haryanto, B., Mahfud, C., Sinapoy, M. S., Djalante, S., Rafliana, I., Gunawan, L. A., Surtiari, G. A. K., & Warsilah, H. (2020). Review and analysis of current responses to COVID-19 in Indonesia: Period of January to March 2020. Progress in Disaster Science, 6, 100091. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pdisas.2020.100091

Engel-Yeger, B., Muzio, C., Rinosi, G., Solano, P., Geoffroy, P. A., Pompili, M., Amore, M., & Serafini, G. (2016). Extreme sensory processing patterns and their relation with clinical conditions among individuals with major affective disorders. Psychiatry Research, 236, 112–118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2015.12.022

Fan, Y. Van, Jiang, P., Hemzal, M., & Klemeš, J. J. (2021). An update of COVID-19 influence on waste management. Science of the Total Environment, 754. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142014

Fitria, N., & Setiawan, R. P. (2014). Identifikasi karakteristik lingkungan permukiman kumuh di Kelurahan Kapuk, Jakarta Barat. Jurnal Teknik Pomits, 3(2), 240–244. http://www.ejurnal.its.ac.id/index.php/teknik/article/view/7290/1930

Fitriyanto, B. R., Helmi, M., & Hadiyanto. (2019). Analyzing spatiotemporal types and patterns of urban growth in watersheds that flow into Jakarta Bay, Indonesia. Remote Sensing Applications: Society and Environment, 14(April), 170–177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rsase.2019.04.002

Franch-Pardo, I., Napoletano, B. M., Rosete-Verges, F., & Billa, L. (2020). Spatial analysis and GIS in the study of COVID-19. A review. Science of the Total Environment, 739, 140033. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140033

Friesen, J., Friesen, V., Dietrich, I., & Pelz, P. F. (2020). Slums, space, and state of health—a link between settlement morphology and health data. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(6). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17062022

Gibson, L., & Rush, D. (2020). Novel Coronavirus in Cape Town Informal Settlements: Feasibility of Using Informal Dwelling Outlines to Identify High Risk Areas for COVID-19 Transmission From A Social Distancing Perspective. JMIR Public Health and Surveillance, 6(2), e18844. https://doi.org/10.2196/18844

Gunnell, D., Appleby, L., Arensman, E., Hawton, K., John, A., Kapur, N., Khan, M., O’Connor, R. C., Pirkis, J., Caine, E. D., Chan, L. F., Chang, S. Sen, Chen, Y. Y., Christensen, H., Dandona, R., Eddleston, M., Erlangsen, A., Harkavy-Friedman, J., Kirtley, O. J., … Yip, P. S. (2020). Suicide risk and prevention during the COVID-19 pandemic. The Lancet Psychiatry, 7(6), 468–471. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(20)30171-1

Gupta, S., Raghuwanshi, G. S., & Chanda, A. (2020). Effect of weather on COVID-19 spread in the US: A prediction model for India in 2020. Science of the Total Environment, 728, 138860. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138860

Hadiwardoyo, W. (2020). Kerugian Ekonomi Nasional Akibat Pandemi COVID-19. Baskara Journal of Business and Enterpreneurship, 2(2), 83–92. https://doi.org/10.24853/baskara.2.2.83-92

Han, H., Luo, Q., Mo, F., Long, L., & Zheng, W. (2020). SARS-CoV-2 RNA more readily detected in induced sputum than in throat swabs of convalescent COVID-19 patients. The Lancet Infectious Diseases, 20(6), 655–656. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30174-2

Harifa, A. C., Sholichin, M., & Prayogo, T. B. (2017). Analisa Pengruh Perubahan Penutupan Lahan terhadap Debit Sungai Sub DAS Metro dengan Menggunakan Program ARCSWAT. Jurnal Teknik Pengairan, 8(1), 1–14. https://jurnalpengairan.ub.ac.id/index.php/jtp/article/view/291

Ibn-Mohammed, T., Mustapha, K. B., Godsell, J., Adamu, Z., Babatunde, K. A., Akintade, D. D., Acquaye, A., Fujii, H., Ndiaye, M. M., Yamoah, F. A., & Koh, S. C. L. (2021). A critical review of the impacts of COVID-19 on the global economy and ecosystems and opportunities for circular economy strategies. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 164(September 2020), 105169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2020.105169

Ilesanmi, O. S., Oderinde, T. M., & Afolabi, A. A. (2020). Public Health in Practice. Primary Health Care, 14(6), 10–10. https://doi.org/10.7748/phc.14.6.10.s11

Irawati, M. (2020). Riset spasial ungkap risiko penyebaran coronavirus level kelurahan dan pasar tradisional di Jakarta. The Conversation.

Islam, S., Islam, R., Mannan, F., Rahman, S., & Islam, T. (2020). COVID-19 pandemic: An analysis of the healthcare, social and economic challenges in Bangladesh. Progress in Disaster Science, 8, 100135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pdisas.2020.100135

Jeong, H., Yim, H. W., Song, Y. J., Ki, M., Min, J. A., Cho, J., & Chae, J. H. (2016). Mental health status of people isolated due to Middle East Respiratory Syndrome. Epidemiology and Health, 38, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.4178/epih.e2016048

Koh, W. C., Alikhan, M. F., Koh, D., & Wong, J. (2020). Containing COVID-19: Implementation of early and moderately stringent social distancing measures can prevent the need for large-scale lockdowns. Annals of Global Health, 86(1), 1–5. https://doi.org/10.5334/aogh.2969

Kooy, M., Walter, C. T., & Prabaharyaka, I. (2018). Inclusive development of urban water services in Jakarta: The role of groundwater. Habitat International, 73, 109–118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2016.10.006

Kuffer, M., Thomson, D. R., Boo, G., Mahabir, R., Grippa, T., Vanhuysse, S., Engstrom, R., Ndugwa, R., Makau, J., Darin, E., de Albuquerque, J. P., & Kabaria, C. (2020). The role of earth observation in an integrated deprived area mapping “system” for low-to-middle income countries. Remote Sensing, 12(6). https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12060982

Kyriazis, A., Mews, G., Belpaire, E., Aerts, J., & Malik, S. A. (2020). Physical distancing, children and urban health. Cities & Health, 00(00), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1080/23748834.2020.1809787

Lahrich, S., Laghrib, F., Farahi, A., Bakasse, M., Saqrane, S., & El Mhammedi, M. A. (2021). Review on the contamination of wastewater by COVID-19 virus: Impact and treatment. Science of the Total Environment, 751, 142325. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142325

Lau, S. K. P., & Chan, J. F. W. (2015). Coronaviruses: Emerging and re-emerging pathogens in humans and animals. Virology Journal, 12(1), 10–12. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12985-015-0432-z

Lee, M., & You, M. (2020). Psychological and behavioral responses in South Korea during the early stages of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(9). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17092977

Li, Y., Huang, X., Yu, I. T. S., Wong, T. W., & Qian, H. (2005). Role of air distribution in SARS transmission during the largest nosocomial outbreak in Hong Kong. Indoor Air, 15(2), 83–95. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0668.2004.00317.x

Lipinski, T., Ahmad, D., Serey, N., & Jouhara, H. (2020). Review of ventilation strategies to reduce the risk of disease transmission in high occupancy buildings. International Journal of Thermofluids, 7–8, 100045. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijft.2020.100045

Liu, D., Thompson, J. R., Carducci, A., & Bi, X. (2020). Potential secondary transmission of SARS-CoV-2 via wastewater. Science of the Total Environment, 749, 142358. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142358

Liu, J., Xie, W., Wang, Y., Xiong, Y., Chen, S., Han, J., & Wu, Q. (2020). A comparative overview of COVID-19, MERS and SARS: Review article. International Journal of Surgery, 81(June), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsu.2020.07.032

Liu, W., Yue, X. G., & Tchounwou, P. B. (2020). Response to the COVID-19 epidemic: The chinese experience and implications for other countries. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(7), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.3390/IJERPH17072304

Malani, A., Shah, D., Kang, G., Lobo, G. N., Shastri, J., Mohanan, M., Jain, R., Agrawal, S., Juneja, S., Imad, S., & Kolthur-Seetharam, U. (2020). Seroprevalence of SARS-CoV-2 in slums versus non-slums in Mumbai, India. The Lancet. Global Health, 20, 1–2. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(20)30467-8

Mandal, P., Gupta, A. K., & Dubey, B. K. (2020). A review on presence, survival, disinfection/removal methods of coronavirus in wastewater and progress of wastewater-based epidemiology. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 8(5), 104317. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2020.104317

Marfai, M. A., & Khasanah, R. T. J. (2012). Kerawanan dan Kemampuan Adaptasi Masyarakat Pesisir terhadap Bahaya Banjir Genangan dan Tsunami. In A. Indiyanto & A. Kuswanjono (Eds.), Konstruksi Masyarakat Tangguuh Bencana (1st ed., pp. 33–73). Mizan.

Martinez, R., & Masron, I. N. (2020). Jakarta: A city of cities. Cities, 106(May). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2020.102868

Miller, G. T., & Spoolman, S. E. (2016). Environmental Science, Fifteenth Edition (15th ed.). Cengage Learning.

Mishra, S. V., Gayen, A., & Haque, S. M. (2020). COVID-19 and urban vulnerability in India. Habitat International, 103(May), 102230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2020.102230

Mofijur, M., Fattah, I. M. R., Alam, M. A., Islam, A. B. M. S., Ong, H. C., Rahman, S. M. A., Najafi, G., Ahmed, S. F., Uddin, M. A., & Mahlia, T. M. I. (2021). Impact of COVID-19 on the social, economic, environmental and energy domains: Lessons learnt from a global pandemic. Sustainable Production and Consumption, 26(September 2020), 343–359. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spc.2020.10.016

Nangi, M. G., Yanti, F., & Lestari, S. A. (2019). Dasar Epidemiologi (1st ed.). Deepublish Publisher.

Nasution, D. A. D., Erlina, E., & Muda, I. (2020). Dampak Pandemi COVID-19 terhadap Perekonomian Indonesia. Jurnal Benefita, 5(2), 212. https://doi.org/10.22216/jbe.v5i2.5313

Nghiem, L. D., Morgan, B., Donner, E., & Short, M. D. (2020). The COVID-19 pandemic: Considerations for the waste and wastewater services sector. Case Studies in Chemical and Envirunmental Engineering, 1(January), 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscee.2020.100006

Nicola, M., Alsafi, Z., Sohrabi, C., Kerwan, A., Al-Jabir, A., Iosifidis, C., Agha, M., & Agha, R. (2020). The socio-economic implications of the coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19): A review. International Journal of Surgery, 78(March), 185–193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsu.2020.04.018

OECD. (2020). Trade interdependencies in COVID-19 goods. OECD.

Parikh, P., Karim, Y. B., Paulose, J., Factor-Litvak, P., Nix, E., Aisyah, D. N., Chaturvedi, H., Manikam, L., & Lakhanpaul, M. (2020). COVID-19 and informal settlements – implications for water, sanitation and health in India and Indonesia. UCL Open Environment, 1, 1–5. https://doi.org/10.14324/111.444/ucloe.000011

Parris, K. (2016). Ecology of Urban Environments. In Journal of Visual Languages & Computing (Vol. 11, Issue 3). John Wiley and Sons Ltd. https://www.m-culture.go.th/mculture_th/download/king9/Glossary_about_HM_King_Bhumibol_Adulyadej’s_Funeral.pdf

Patrício Silva, A. L., Prata, J. C., Walker, T. R., Campos, D., Duarte, A. C., Soares, A. M. V. M., Barcelò, D., & Rocha-Santos, T. (2020). Rethinking and optimising plastic waste management under COVID-19 pandemic: Policy solutions based on redesign and reduction of single-use plastics and personal protective equipment. Science of the Total Environment, 742, 140565. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140565

Peckham, R., & Sinha, R. (2017). Satellites and the New War on Infection: Tracking Ebola in West Africa. Geoforum, 80, 24–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2017.01.001

Pereira, R. J., Nascimento, G. N. L. d., Gratão, L. H. A., & Pimenta, R. S. (2020). The risk of COVID-19 transmission in favelas and slums in Brazil. Public Health, 183, 42–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2020.04.042

Phuoc, T., Thu, B., Nguyen, P., Ngoc, H., Minh, N., & Anh, L. (2020). Effect of the social distancing measures on the spread ofCOVID-19 in 10 highly infected countries. Science of the Total Environment, 742(January). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140430

Purnama, S. G., & Susanna, D. (2020). Hygiene and sanitation challenge for COVID-19 prevention in Indonesia. Kesmas, 15(2), 6–13. https://doi.org/10.21109/KESMAS.V15I2.3932

Putra, P., Liriwati, F. Y., Tahrim, T., Syafrudin, S., & Aslan, A. (2020). The Students Learning from Home Experiences during COVID-19 School Closures Policy In Indonesia. Jurnal Iqra’ : Kajian Ilmu Pendidikan, 5(2), 30–42. https://doi.org/10.25217/ji.v5i2.1019

Qian, H., & Zheng, X. (2018). Ventilation control for airborne transmission of human exhaled bio-aerosols in buildings. Journal of Thoracic Disease, 10(Suppl 19), S2295–S2304. https://doi.org/10.21037/jtd.2018.01.24

Rembulan, G. D., Luin, J. A., Julianto, V., & Septorino, G. (2020). Optimalisasi Panjang Jaringan Pipa Air Bersih di Dki Jakarta Menggunakan Minimum Spanning Tree. Intech, 6(1), 75–87. https://doi.org/10.30656/intech.v6i1.2164

Rothan, H. A., & Byrareddy, S. N. (2020). The epidemiology and pathogenesis of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) outbreak. Journal of Autoimmunity, 109(February), 102433. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaut.2020.102433

Rume, T., & Islam, S. M. D. U. (2020). Environmental effects of COVID-19 pandemic and potential strategies of sustainability. Heliyon, 6(9), e04965. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04965

Saglietto, A., D’Ascenzo, F., Zoccai, G. B., & De Ferrari, G. M. (2020). COVID-19 in Europe: the Italian lesson. The Lancet, 395(10230), 1110–1111. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30690-5

Saputra, H., & Salma, N. (2020). Dampak PSBB dan PSBB Transisi di DKI Jakarta dalam Pengendalian COVID-19. Media Kesehatan Masyarakat, 16(1), 116–126. https://ejurnal.undana.ac.id/MKM/

Sari, M. K., & Winarso, H. (2007). Transformasi Sosial Ekonomi Masyarakat Peri-Urban di Sekitar Pengembangan Lahan Skala Besar: Kasus Bumi Serpong Damai. In Journal of Regional and City Planning, 18(1), 1–30). http://journals.itb.ac.id/index.php/jpwk/article/view/4207/2274

Septriana, F. E., Alnavis, N. B., Gustia, R., Wirawan, R. R., Putri, P., Hasibuan, H. S., & Tambunan, R. P. (2020). Dampak Perubahan Tutupan Lahan pada Sistem Hidrologi. Majalah Ilmiah Globe, 22(1), 51–58. http://jurnal.big.go.id/index.php/GL/article/view/1150

Sethuraman, N., Jeremiah, S. S., & Ryo, A. (2020). Interpreting Diagnostic Tests for SARS-CoV-2. JAMA - Journal of the American Medical Association, 323(22), 2249–2251. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.8259

Setyawan, F. E. B., & Lestari, R. (2020). Challenges of Stay-At-Home Policy Implementation During the Coronavirus (COVID-19) Pandemic in Indonesia. Jurnal Administrasi Kesehatan Indonesia, 8(2), 15. https://doi.org/10.20473/jaki.v8i2.2020.15-20

Suryahadi, A., Al Izzati, R., & Suryadarma, D. (2020). The Impact of COVID-19 Outbreak on Poverty: An Estimation for Indonesia (Draft). SMERU Working Paper, April, 1–20. http://smeru.or.id/en/content/impact-COVID-19-outbreak-poverty-estimation-indonesia

Taylor, D., Lindsay, A. C., & Halcox, J. P. (2020). Aerosol and Surface Stability of SARS-CoV-2 as Compared with SARS-CoV-1. The New England Journal of Medicine, 382(16), 0–2.

Tosepu, R., Gunawan, J., Effendy, D. S., Ahmad, L. O. A. I., Lestari, H., Bahar, H., & Asfian, P. (2020). Correlation between weather and COVID-19 pandemic in Jakarta, Indonesia. Science of the Total Environment, 725. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138436

Vanapalli, K. R., Sharma, H. B., Ranjan, V. P., Samal, B., Bhattacharya, J., Dubey, B. K., & Goel, S. (2020). Challenges and strategies for effective plastic waste management during and post COVID-19 pandemic. Science of the Total Environment, 750, 141514. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141514

von Seidlein, L., Graham, A., Deen, J., & Knudsen, J. (2020). Crowding has consequences: Prevention and management of COVID-19 in informal urban settlements. Building and Environment, 104743. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2020.107472

Yamali, F. R., & Putri, R. N. (2020). Dampak Pandemi COVID-19 Terhadap Ekonomi Indonesia. Medcom,Id, 4(2), 1. https://doi.org/10.33087/ekonomis.v4i2.179

Yazid, E. K., & Palani, H. (2020). Menakar Keberhasilan PSBB dalam Penanganan COVID-19: Data dan Peringatan bagi Pemerintah Daerah. CSIS.

Yeo, C., Kaushal, S., & Yeo, D. (2020). Enteric involvement of coronaviruses: is faecal–oral transmission of SARS-CoV-2 possible? The Lancet Gastroenterology and Hepatology, 5(4), 335–337. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-1253(20)30048-0

Yuan, J., Li, M., Lv, G., & Lu, Z. K. (2020). Monitoring transmissibility and mortality of COVID-19 in Europe. International Journal of Infectious Diseases, 95, 311–315. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2020.03.050