Determinants of livestock waste-to-energy adoption among smallholder farmers in East Java, Indonesia
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.61511/icese.v4i1.2026.3618Keywords:
biogas, energy adoption, livestock waste, smallholder farmers, sustainable energyAbstract
Background: Livestock waste holds significant potential as a renewable energy resource; however, waste management practices among smallholder farmers remain suboptimal. The adoption of waste-to-energy technology is limited, and the behavioral and socioeconomic determinants of this adoption gap are not yet fully understood. This study aims to identify livestock waste management practices, analyze differences in perceptions (energy-adopting and non-adopting farmers), and examine socioeconomic factors associated with biogas adoption. Methods: A quantitative cross-sectional survey was conducted in Sidoarjo Regency and Surabaya City, East Java Province, Indonesia. A total of 184 smallholder livestock farmers were selected through proportional random sampling. Data were analyzed using descriptive and comparative statistics, including Mann-Whitney U and Kruskal-Wallis tests to examine group differences in Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) constructs. Findings: Non-energy practices dominate waste management, and the adoption of waste-to-energy technology remains limited. However, attitude scores, intentions, and behavioral control indicate a strong adoption potential. Mann-Whitney U test confirmed statistically significant differences for all four constructs: ATT (U = 180.5, p = .006), SN (U = 251.0, p = .026), PBC (U = 138.5, p = .002), and INT (U = 242.5, p = .022). Energy adopters consistently scored higher on all constructs, with the largest difference observed in PBC (Δ = +1.04). Fermentation plays a transitional behavioral role toward energy use and is comparable in behavioral readiness to biogas adopters. Conclusion: A tiered policy approach based on the adoption ladder is recommended to accelerate renewable energy uptake. Novelty/Originality of this article: Although various step-based adoption models have been suggested in the literature, the present study operationalizes the Adoption Ladder based on the constructs of TPB. Fermentation farmers can be considered at a behavioral stage of transition toward adopting biogas, based on empirically comparable attitudinal and intentional profiles relative to biogas adopters. The findings show that attitudes, subjective norms, and behavioral control affect adoption intentions, and fermentation farmers are positioned within a pre-adoption behavioral stage that indicates readiness for transition to biogas adoption.
References
Agaton, C. B., & Santos, M. J. A. (2025). Social Acceptability of Waste-to-Energy: Research Hotspots, Technologies, and Factors. Clean Technologies, 7(3). https://doi.org/10.3390/cleantechnol7030063
Ainembabazi, J. H., & Mugisha, J. (2014). The Role of Farming Experience on the Adoption of Agricultural Technologies: Evidence from Smallholder Farmers in Uganda. Journal of Development Studies, 50(5), 666–679. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2013.874556
Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T
Akinyemi, B. E., Turner, S. P., Akaichi, F., Johnson, A. K., Benjamin, M. E., Pairis-Garcia, M. D., Rozeboom, D. W., Steibel, J. P., Thompson, D. P., Zangaro, C., Jessiman, L., & Siegford, J. M. (2024). Precision Livestock Farming in U.S. Swine Industry: Farmer Intention to Adopt, Actual Adoption Practices, and Veterinarian Recommendations to Adopt. 11th European Conference on Precision Livestock Farming, 400–408.
Ali, S., Yan, Q., Irfan, M., & Chen, Z. (2022). Evaluating Barriers on Biogas Technology Adoption in China: The Moderating Role of Awareness and Technology Understanding. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2022.887084
Ali, S., Yan, Q., Razzaq, A., Khan, I., & Irfan, M. (2023). Modeling factors of biogas technology adoption: a roadmap towards environmental sustainability and green revolution. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 30(5), 11838–11860. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-22894-0
Aljehani, J. G., Mostafa, M. K., Abdulkarim, S., Piliposyan, G., Al-Othman, A., & Tawalbeh, M. (2026). Chapter 8 - Conversion of livestock waste to energy: New technological transformation for energy recovery. In Y. Gagnon, B. Ravindran, S. A. Bhat, & Garth Driffiths (Eds.), Transformation of SOlid Waste to Energy (pp. 217–240). Woodhead Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-443-29275-0.00016-5
Arianti, F. D., Triastono, J., Pertiwi, M. D., Prabowo, A., Prasetyo, T., Chanifah, Haryanto, B., Megawati, Astuti, W., Djarot, I. N., Santoso, A. D., & Wijayanti, S. P. (2024). Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering Renewable energy potential of rice straw and paunch manure as bioethanol feedstocks in Central Java , Indonesia. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering, 9(March), 100677. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscee.2024.100677
Asih, An. M. S., Ariyanto, T., Prasetyo, B. A., Insani, V. F. S., Irianto, D., Hadiyati, K. R., & Rachmadani, M. A. (2025). Unlocking bioenergy for electricity generation in Indonesia : A Resource-economic assessment. Sustainable Futures, 10(August), 101456. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sftr.2025.101456
Atsbeha, D. M., Flaten, O., Olsen, H. F., Kjos, N. P., Kidane, A., Skugor, A., Prestløkken, E., & Øverland, M. (2020). Technical and economic performance of alternative feeds in dairy and pig production. Livestock Science, 240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.livsci.2020.104123
Bedru, T. K., Garuma, W. B., Jayakumar, M., & Asfaw, B. T. (2026). Chapter 12 -Livestock residue as nonpareil bioenergy resource: Recent technological valorization for clean energy recovery. In Y. Gagnon, B. Ravindran, S. A. Bhat, & G. Griffiths (Eds.), Transformation of Solid Waste to Energy (pp. 299–325). Woodhead Publishing.
Bist, S., Regmi, T., & Kumar, R. (2024). Poultry slaughterhouse waste management through anaerobic digestion with varying proportions of chicken litter. Environmental Challenges, 17(September), 101035. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envc.2024.101035
Bonokwane, L. P., & Ololade, O. O. (2022). Socio-economic factors affecting smallholder farmers’ willingness to adopt biodigester technology in South Africa. Journal of Energy in Southern Africa, 33(1), 10–20. https://doi.org/10.17159/2413-3051/2022/v33i1a8860
Brown, B. A., An, H., & Jeffrey, S. R. (2020). Benefit-cost analysis of near-infrared spectroscopy technology adoption by alberta hog producers. Canadian Journal of Animal Science, 100(3), 557–569. https://doi.org/10.1139/cjas-2019-0144
Caffaro, F., Roccato, M., Bagagiolo, G., Cavallo, E., & Pampuro, N. (2025). Training and social-psychological drivers of farmers’ intention to adopt renewable energy for agricultural machinery: An Italian study. Energy Conversion and Management: X, 28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecmx.2025.101360
Chekol, F., Tsegaye, A., Mazengia, T., & Hiruy, M. (2022). Small scale biogas technology adoption behaviours of rural households and its effect on major crop yields in East Gojjam Zone of Ethiopia: propensity score matching approach. Cogent Engineering, 9(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/23311916.2022.2133343
Dey, S., Abbhishek, K., Saraswathibatla, S., & Das, D. (2025). Assessing farmers’ willingness to adopt conservation agricultural practices through an extended theory of planned behavior. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 12(1). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-025-06173-0
Dong, H., Wang, H., & Han, J. (2022). Understanding Ecological Agricultural Technology Adoption in China Using an Integrated Technology Acceptance Model—Theory of Planned Behavior Model. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2022.927668
Fabricant, P. D. (2024). Cross-Sectional Studies. Practical Clinical Research Design and Application, 71–75. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-58380-3_11
Falcon, W. P., Naylor, R. L., & Shankar, N. D. (2022). Rethinking Global Food Demand for 2050. Population and Development Review, 48(4), 921–957. https://doi.org/10.1111/padr.12508
Ferdoush, M. R., Aziz, R. Al, Karmaker, C. L., Debnath, B., Limon, M. H., & Bari, A. B. M. M. (2024). Unraveling the challenges of waste-to-energy transition in emerging economies: Implications for sustainability. Innovation and Green Development, 3(2). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.igd.2023.100121
Fiorilla, E., Gariglio, M., Martinez-miro, S., Rosique, C., Madrid, J., Montalban, A., Biasato, I., Bongiorno, V., Erika, E., Soglia, D., & Schiavone, A. (2024). Improving sustainability in autochthonous slow-growing chicken farming : Exploring new frontiers through the use of alternative dietary proteins. Journal of Cleaner Production, 434(December 2023), 140041. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.140041
García-Agüero, A. I., Castillo-Díaz, F. J., Belmonte-Ureña, L. J., & Camacho-Ferre, F. (2024). Socioeconomic and technical factors in European agricultural sustainable waste management: The case of Spain. Equilibrium. Quarterly Journal of Economics and Economic Policy, 19(4), 1185–1227. https://doi.org/10.24136/eq.3295
Gebretsadik, T., Zavale, H., Manuel, L., & Ayele, M. (2025). Biogas technology for rural energy security: an investigation of uptake and diffusion in Meskan district, southern Ethiopia. Discover Environment, 3(1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s44274-025-00404-6
Guntoro, B., Qui, N. H., Putra, A. R. S., Thu, N. T. A., & Vui, N. Van. (2024). Factors Affecting the Willingness to Adopt Biogas System at Small Pig Farms in Mekong Delta, Vietnam. Pakistan Journal of Agricultural Research, 37(4), 320–330. https://doi.org/10.17582/JOURNAL.PJAR/2024/37.4.320.330
Gyimah, A. G., Addai, B., & Gyimah, L. A. A. (2025). Embracing clean waste-to-energy solutions in Sub-Saharan Africa: A countrified residential perspective. Cleaner Waste Systems, 11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clwas.2025.100242
Hagger, M. S., & Hamilton, K. (2025). The theory of planned behavior: Reasoning about the future of a social cognitive theory. Psychological Bulletin. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000458
Harland, T. A., & Heller, R. S. (2025). Cross-sectional study: Design, measures, classic example. Translational Neurosurgery, 139–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-90509-1.00040-0
Henchion, M., Moloney, A. P., Hyland, J., Zimmermann, J., & Mccarthy, S. (2021). Animal The international journal of animal biosciences Review : Trends for meat , milk and egg consumption for the next decades and the role played by livestock systems in the global production of proteins. Animal, 15, 100287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.animal.2021.100287
Khanal, A., Giri, S., Oyebode, O. J., Omijeh, J. E., & Khanal, A. (2024). Policy Measures, Practices and Challenges of Waste-to-Energy: Perspectives from Nigeria and Nepal. Journal of Environmental Informatics Letters, 11(1), 29–37. https://doi.org/10.3808/jeil.202400124
Kitole, F. A. (2025). Impact of dairy farming extension programs on smallholder livestock keepers’ welfare among Maasai communities in Arusha, Tanzania. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 239, 106511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prevetmed.2025.106511
Kusmiyati, K., Kusuma, D., Hartono, B. J. R., Fajar, G., & Fudholi, A. (2023). Results in Engineering Harnessing the power of cow dung : Exploring the environmental , energy , and economic potential of biogas production in Indonesia. Results in Engineering, 20(September), 101431. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2023.101431
Laksono, P., Irham, Mulyo, J. H., & Suryantini, A. (2022). Farmers’ willingness to adopt geographical indication practice in Indonesia: A psycho behavioral analysis. Heliyon, 8(8). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e10178
Linh, D. M., Kien, T. T., Thao, N. T. P., Thang, N. V., Son, L. T., Khanh, N. T. T., & Hai, L. T. (2026). The optimization of waste recycling and material flow cost in zero-emission intensive pig farming. Heliyon, 12(2), e44512. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2026.e44512
Liu, H., Peng, H., Yu, Z., Xia, Q., & Dong, X. (2023). Adoption of manure resource utilization technologies and its economic effects on large-scale dairy farms. Resources Science, 45(8), 1560–1576. https://doi.org/10.18402/resci.2023.08.06
Lowder, S. K., Skoet, J., & Raney, T. (2016). The number, size, and distribution of farms, smallholder farms, and family farms worldwide. World Development, 87, 16–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2015.10.041
Magnolo, F., Candel, J., & Speelman, S. (2024). Biomethane from manure in the RePowerEU: A critical perspective on the scale-up of renewable energy production from the livestock sector. Energy Research & Social Science, 118, 103793. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2024.103793
Maharjan, P., Martinez, D. A., Weil, J., Suesuttajit, N., Umberson, C., Mullenix, G., Hilton, K. M., Beitia, A., & Coon, C. N. (2021). Animal The international journal of animal biosciences Review : Physiological growth trend of current meat broilers and dietary protein and energy management approaches for sustainable broiler production. Animal, 15, 100284. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.animal.2021.100284
Mallinger, K., Corpaci, L., Goldenits, G., Neubauer, T., Tikász, I. E., & Banhazi, T. (2025). Using machine learning techniques to assess the technology adoption readiness levels of livestock producers. Agronomy Research, 23(2), 1147–1168. https://doi.org/10.15159/AR.25.074
Marie, M., Yirga, F., Alemu, G., & Azadi, H. (2021). Status of energy utilization and factors affecting rural households’ adoption of biogas technology in north-western Ethiopia. Heliyon, 7(3). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e06487
Modderman, C. (2020). Composting with or without Additives. Animal Manure: Production, Characteristics, Environmental Concerns, and Management, 245–254. https://doi.org/10.2134/asaspecpub67.c19
Mulugeta, S., & Leta, A. (2022). Determinants of Renewable Energy Technologies Adoption and Energy Source Choice of Households in Boset District, Ethiopia. Sarhad Journal of Agriculture, 38(2), 422–429. https://doi.org/10.17582/JOURNAL.SJA/2022/38.2.422.429
Munadi, L. O. M., Aku, L. O. A., Samiel, E., Khabiirun, K., Zumail, L. O., Surahmanto, S., Koso, H., Mufakhir, L. O. A., Dewi, F., Sahaba, L. O., Hinarti, W. O., & Tawai, A. (2025). Alternative Energy : Optimization of Livestock Waste and Its Utilization Opportunities for Rural Communities in Muna Regency , Indonesia Alternative Energy : Optimization of Livestock Waste and Its Utilization Opportunities for Rural Communities in Muna R. Earth and Environmental Science, 1502, 012049. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1502/1/012049
Nair, S. D., Gautam, A., Beena, N. S., & Kaushal, M. (2026). Chapter 2 - Livestock waste: Sources, types, and composition. In Waste to Resourves (pp. 21–36). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-443-30246-6.00002-2
Ngcobo, L., Obi, A., Mamphweli, S., & Zantsi, S. (2022). Adoption and perceptions of biogas: Empirical evidence from rural households of Melani village in Raymond Mhlaba municipality. African Journal of Science, Technology, Innovation and Development, 14(2), 350–358. https://doi.org/10.1080/20421338.2020.1819684
Nordin, S. M., Lohana, S., Abd Razak, S. N., Kumar, V., Abdul Rashid, R., Ahmad Rizal, A. R., & Atmadji, E. (2023). Identification of Opportunities for Espousing Green Fertilizers Technology Among Smallholder Paddy Farmers for Higher Productivity and Environmental Sustenance. SAGE Open, 13(4). https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440231218688
Nunnally, J. C. (1978). Psychometric theory (2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill.
Palma-Molina, P., Hennessy, T., O’Connor, A. H., Onakuse, S., O’Leary, N., Moran, B., & Shalloo, L. (2023). Factors associated with intensity of technology adoption and with the adoption of 4 clusters of precision livestock farming technologies in Irish pasture-based dairy systems. Journal of Dairy Science, 106(4), 2498–2509. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2021-21503
Pan, D., Tang, J., Zhang, L., He, M., & Kung, C. C. (2021). The impact of farm scale and technology characteristics on the adoption of sustainable manure management technologies: Evidence from hog production in China. Journal of Cleaner Production, 280. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.124340
Perera, T. A. N. T., Perera, H. A. T. N., Dissanayake, D. M. N. A., Dias, M. A. S. K., Ruwanpathirana, P. P., & Jayasinghe, G. Y. (2024). A review on ultraviolet light treatment for emissions of livestock gases , odor control in waste management , and disinfection of common environmental pathogens. Waste Management Bulletin, 2(4), 167–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wmb.2024.11.001
Perez-remedios, J. A., Elvira, K., Espinoza, R., García, C. D., Jimmy, D., Ayala, E., & Rodríguez, L. D. (2024). Results in Engineering Assessing the biogas potential of slaughterhouse waste in Tenerife : A sustainable approach to waste management in an outermost European region. Results in Engineering, 24(September), 103389. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2024.103389
Pertiwiningrum, A., Wuri, M. A., Setiyana, D., Purwanto, B. H., Harto, A. W., & Gozan, M. (2020). Evaluation of Methane and Carbon Dioxide Emissions From Livestock Waste, Compost, and Biogas Sludge. International Journal of GEOMATE, 18(68), 35–40. https://doi.org/10.21660/2020.68.5592
Puastuti, W., Yulistiani, D., & Widiawati, Y. (2021). Nutrient content and greenhouse gas emissions of goat manure compost processed without and with decomposer. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 648(1). https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/648/1/012113
Putra, A. R. S., Czekaj, T. G., & Lund, M. (2019). Study of the biogas technology adoption as a livestock waste management among smallholder farmers in Indonesia. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 260(1). https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/260/1/012070
Putra, A. R. S., Pedersen, S. M., & Liu, Z. (2019). Biogas diffusion among small scale farmers in Indonesia: An application of duration analysis. Land Use Policy, 86, 399–405. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2019.05.035
Rahman, I. U., Mohammed, H. J., & Bamasag, A. (2025). An exploration of recent waste-to-energy advancements for optimal solid waste management. Discover Chemical Engineering, 5(1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s43938-025-00079-8
Rana, M., Al Mamun, M. A., Hossain, M. K., Rekha, R. S., & Alam, S. M. S. (2025). Understanding the adoption of renewable energy technologies by households in South Asia: a theory of planned behavior perspective. Discover Sustainability, 6(1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s43621-025-01051-w
Roubik, H., & Mazancova, J. (2020). Suitability of small-scale biogas systems based on livestock manure for the rural areas of Sumatra. Environmental Development, 33, 100505. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2020.100505
Shaibur, M. R., Helal, A. S. AL, Siddique, A. B., Husain, H., Khan, M. W., Sarwar, S., Farzana, F., Nahar, N., Hossain, M. S., Arpon, S. H., Miah, M. A., Nova, S. S., Priyanka, K. A., Yeasmin, F., Islam, M. M., Nishan, R. H., Raj, S. R., Hasanuzzaman, M., & Sakib, M. N. (2025). Cow dung management , biogas production and the uses of bio-slurry for sustainable agriculture. Cleaner Waste Systems, 10(November 2024), 100201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clwas.2024.100201
Shallo, L., Ayele, M., & Sime, G. (2020). Determinants of biogas technology adoption in southern Ethiopia. Energy, Sustainability and Society, 10(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13705-019-0236-x
Shimahata, A., Farghali, M., & Fujii, M. (2020). Factors influencing the willingness of dairy farmers to adopt biogas plants: A case study in Hokkaido, Japan. Sustainability (Switzerland), 12(18). https://doi.org/10.3390/SU12187809
Skvortsov, E. A. (2023). Impact of the Remoteness of Farms on the Use of Robotics in Regional Agriculture. Economy of Regions, 19(1), 150–162. https://doi.org/10.17059/ekon.reg.2023-1-12
Susilo, A., Natsir, M. H., Kuswati, erini, T. E., & Prasetya, N. R. (2025). Spatial Analysis of Land Suitability for Livestock Farming in East Java Using GIS and DEM-Based Environmental Modeling. International Journal of Design and Nature and Ecodynamics, 20(10), 2265–2277. https://doi.org/10.18280/ijdne.201006
Umilia, E., & Saptarini, D. (2019). The study of potential area for urban farming at Surabaya City. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 340(1). https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/340/1/012018
Wang, H., Zhang, L., & Xin, J. (2024). Research on the Influencing Factors of FarmersIntention to Sort Waste Based on TPB. Polish Journal of Environmental Studies, 33(3), 3421–3430. https://doi.org/10.15244/pjoes/175787
Wang, J., Li, W., Haq, S. ul, & Shahbaz, P. (2023). Adoption of Renewable Energy Technology on Farms for Sustainable and Efficient Production: Exploring the Role of Entrepreneurial Orientation, Farmer Perception and Government Policies. Sustainability (Switzerland), 15(7). https://doi.org/10.3390/su15075611
Wang, J., & Tao, J. (2020). An analysis of farmers’ resource disposal methods for livestock and poultry waste and their determinants. Chinese Journal of Population Resources and Environment, 18(1), 49–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cjpre.2021.04.017
Wang, Y., Ghimire, S., Wang, J., Dong, R., & Li, Q. (2021). Alternative management systems of beef cattle manure for reducing nitrogen loadings: A case-study approach. Animals, 11(2), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11020574
Welsh, R., Webb, M. E., Grimberg, S., & Rogers, S. (2019). Measuring the results of a workshop on installing anaerobic digesters on smaller livestock farms. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems, 34(6), 487–491. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1742170518000212
Yamane, T. (1967). Statistics: An introductory analysis (2nd ed.). Harper and Row.
Yun, S., & Lee, J. (2015). Advancing societal readiness toward renewable energy system adoption with a socio-technical perspective. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 95, 170–181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2015.01.016
Ziauddin, L., Krivicich, L. M., & Nho, S. J. (2023). Cross-section study. Translational Sports Medicine, 191–193. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-91259-4.00081-3
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
Citation Check
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Evi Frimawaty, Fani Mardianti, Ravita Sari
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
