A systematic review of the current botany, phytochemical, pharmacological, and conservation status of the Macassar Ebony (Diospyros celebica Bakh.)

Abstract

Background: Diospyros celebica, commonly known as Macassar Ebony, is a tree species endemic to Sulawesi with high economic value that is currently experiencing a significant decline in its population, primarily due to illegal harvesting and logging that threaten its survival in its natural habitat. Methods: This study conducted a systematic review following PRISMA guidelines, gathering data from Google Scholar and Scopus covering publications from 2015 to 2025. Inclusion was limited to studies explicitly discussing the botanical, ecological, phytochemical, pharmacological, or conservation aspects of D. celebica; literature older than 10 years was included only for legislation or taxonomy. From 150 initially identified articles, 53 met the inclusion criteria and were analysed for botanical and ecological characteristics, pharmacological bioactive compounds, and conservation efforts. Findings: Diospyros celebica reaches up to 40 meters in height with a trunk diameter of up to 100 centimetres, a cylindrical shape, fine wood fibres, and continuous, horizontally growing branches. Its simple leaves have an alternating arrangement and semi-terete petioles. Pharmacologically, its bioactive compounds show promise for treating infections and various diseases. The IUCN Red List classifies it as Vulnerable, with slow growth rate as the main conservation challenge. Recommended strategies include enhancing in-situ and ex-situ conservation, optimizing tissue culture for mass propagation, and using microbes to accelerate seedling growth. Conclusion: Beyond its economic importance, Macassar Ebony contains significant compounds, such as flavonoids, that function as antidiabetic agents. As an endemic species, it contributes to carbon sequestration and helps maintain tropical forest stability. Its preservation is crucial, as it is threatened by breeding depression from low genetic diversity and slow regeneration. Novelty/Originality of this article: This study addresses a research gap by synthesizing the current status and proposing a comprehensive conservation framework for Macassar Ebony, a species at risk of extinction.